Mongolia

Mongolia is undergoing rapid urbanization, leading to severe air pollution, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, which has the worst air quality in the country. Since 1990, industrialization and urban migration have put immense pressure on Mongolia’s environment, with deforestation, desertification, and agricultural fires contributing to air pollution.

A significant driver of pollution is the mass migration of rural populations to Ulaanbaatar, where many settle in ger districts on the city’s outskirts. These traditional dwellings lack proper infrastructure, and residents rely on raw coal-burning stoves for heating, which contribute to 80% of the city’s air pollution. Due to these factors, Mongolia’s annual mean PM2.5 exposure is 38 µg/m³, which is 7.6 times the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³. The health consequences are severe, with 2,245 deaths in 2019 due to fine particulate pollution, amounting to 66 deaths per 100,000 people. A study in 2018 reported a 350% increase in fetal deaths during the winters of 2009-2011, with health costs projected to reach USD 10 million by 2025 in Ulaanbaatar alone.

The main sources of pollution in Mongolia include coal burning in ger households, industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and agricultural fires. Poor air circulation and geographical and meteorological conditions exacerbate pollution levels in Ulaanbaatar, causing PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations to regularly exceed both national and WHO standards. Additionally, high levels of SO₂ and NO₂ are recorded in many areas, while CO and O3 generally remain within national limits. The impact is not limited to cities—rural areas also experience air pollution exceeding national standards.

Mongolia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reached 53.9 million metric tonnes of CO₂-equivalent in 2020, a 5.3% decrease from 2019. The agriculture sector contributes 48.51% of emissions, followed by the industrial processes and waste sector (0.95% and 0.46%, respectively). This highlights the dual challenge Mongolia faces—addressing both urban and industrial pollution while managing agricultural emissions.

According to a study conducted in 2018, a 350 per cent rise in foetal deaths was reported in the winters between 2009 and 2011, which could lead to an increased health expenditure by 2025 amounting to nearly 10 million USD in Ulaanbaatar alone. Ulaanbaatar records the worst air quality and highest concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 in the country due to high emissions, population, and adverse geographical and meteorological conditions (Cousins, 2019). Very high concentrations of particulate matter, SO and NO₂ not meeting the national and WHO standards are recorded in Mongolia, while CO and O₃ are recorded below the national standard levels. The national air quality standards and the WHO limits are not only exceeded in the cities but also in the rural areas of Mongolia.   

To monitor air pollution, Mongolia operates 42 air quality monitoring stations across the country through the National Agency for Meteorology and Environmental Monitoring (NAMEM) and the Air Pollution Reduction Department of Ulaanbaatar (APRD). These stations track SO₂, NO₂, PM10, and PM2.5, though ozone and carbon monoxide are only measured at select sites in Ulaanbaatar. While these monitoring efforts provide critical data, sustained policy interventions, investment in cleaner technologies, and the transition away from coal heating will be essential in improving Mongolia’s air quality.