Indonesia faces severe air pollution, with Jakarta ranking among the most polluted cities in the world. The annual mean PM2.5 exposure is 19 µg/m3, which is 3.8 times the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m3. The health impact is significant, with 106,710 deaths in 2019 attributed to fine particulate pollution, equivalent to 41 deaths per 100,000 people. Exposure to air pollution has led to 7,000 health complications in children and more than 5,000 hospitalizations in Jakarta, with an economic burden of nearly USD 294 million between 2018 and 2019. Air quality data from 2010 to 2022 shows increasing concentrations of SO2 and NO2, while PM10, O3, and CO levels have shown no clear trends.
The main contributors to Indonesia’s air pollution include peatland fires, vehicular emissions, coal-fired power plants, road dust, and biomass burning for cooking and heating. In urban areas, high vehicle emissions are the dominant factor, while industrial clusters and coal power plants in Banten and Java exacerbate air pollution. The country also faces transboundary haze, particularly during El Niño years, which bring hotter and drier weather conditions. Coal consumption increased by 33% in 2022 compared to 2021, further worsening emissions. Monthly mean PM2.5 concentrations in Jakarta across multiple years show a distinct seasonal trend. Average PM2.5 levels peak during the middle months (May to September), often exceeding 50 µg/m³, and significantly decrease during the early months (January to April), dropping to around 30 µg/m³. Regarding the maximum variability in PM2.5 by month over the years, highlighting that PM2.5 concentrations show high variability during the middle months, frequently spiking well above the mean values, while the early months have lower, less fluctuating levels.
Indonesia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are among the highest in the region, with total emissions in 2019 reaching 1,845,067 Gg CO2e. The largest contributors are peat fires (50.13%), energy (34.49%), waste (6.52%), and industrial processes (3.15%). CO2 accounts for 85.51% of emissions, followed by CH4 (10.86%) and N2O (3.62%). Between 2000 and 2019, the country’s average total emissions were 1,188,161 Gg CO2e, reflecting a significant increase over time. Yearly mean PM2.5 levels in major cities of Indonesia show persistent air pollution, with Jakarta recording the highest concentrations, fluctuating between 25-35 µg/m³. Pekanbaru and Surabaya exhibit moderate pollution levels, ranging from 20-25 µg/m³, while Medan, Palembang, and Makassar generally experience lower levels, around 15-20 µg/m³. Despite variations, all cities exceed the WHO standard, indicating ongoing pollution challenges influenced by urban emissions, industrial activities, and regional haze from forest fires.
To address air pollution, Indonesia operates 38 continuous air monitoring stations under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK), providing data through the Air Pollution Standard Index (ISPU). Public pressure has driven policy action, including the Law No. 32/2009 on Environmental Protection and Management. In 2015, the Peatland Restoration Agency (BRG) was established to manage peatland fires, and in 2017, Euro IV fuel standards were introduced, restricting sulfur content to 50 ppm. Additional measures, such as the subway system in Jakarta, aim to mitigate emissions, but enforcement and large-scale policy implementation remain critical for sustainable improvements in Indonesia’s air quality.